Study related

📘( Economics) Collection of Data  🔍 Introduction Data is essential for statistical analysis. In economics, we collect data to study economic problems, trends, and policy impacts. Chapter 2 focuses on how data is collected , including its types, sources, and methods. 📂 Types of Data 1. Primary Data Data collected firsthand by the investigator. Original and specific to the purpose. Example: A survey conducted by a researcher. 2. Secondary Data Data already collected and published by others. Less time-consuming and less expensive. Example: Data from Census of India, RBI reports, NSSO, etc. 🧭 Sources of Data ✅ Primary Data Sources: Surveys Direct interviews Questionnaires Observations ✅ Secondary Data Sources: Government publications Reports of organizations (e.g., NSSO, CSO) Internet databases Newspapers and magazines 📝 Methods of Collecting Primary Data Direct Personal Investigation Face-to-face interaction Accurate but time-consuming ...

 Introduction to Economics 🔹 1. What is Economics? Economics is the study of how individuals, firms, and governments make choices when resources are scarce. It addresses the problem of scarcity and how to make efficient choices . 🔹 2. Central Economic Problems Because resources are limited and human wants are unlimited, every economy faces three fundamental questions: What to produce? Deciding which goods and services should be produced and in what quantity. How to produce? Choosing the method of production (labor-intensive or capital-intensive). For whom to produce? Deciding how goods are distributed among individuals and groups in society. 🔹 3. Types of Economics Microeconomics : Focuses on individual units like households, firms, markets. Topics: Demand & supply, price, consumer behavior, cost of production. Macroeconomics : Studies the whole economy . Topics: National income, GDP, inflation, unemployment, fiscal/monetary pol...

📘 Basic Economics Notes 1. Definition of Economics Economics is the study of how people allocate limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants. Two main branches: Microeconomics – Study of individual markets, consumers, and firms. Macroeconomics – Study of the economy as a whole (GDP, inflation, unemployment, etc.). 💸 Basic Economic Concepts 2. Scarcity Resources (land, labor, capital) are limited. Scarcity forces choices and trade-offs. 3. Opportunity Cost The value of the next best alternative foregone when making a decision. 4. Demand and Supply Demand : Quantity of a good consumers are willing and able to buy at different prices. Law of Demand : Price ↑ → Quantity demanded ↓ (inverse relationship). Supply : Quantity of a good producers are willing to offer at different prices. Law of Supply : Price ↑ → Quantity supplied ↑ (direct relationship). Equilibrium : Where demand equals supply. 📈 Macroeconomic Indicators 5. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ...

  COST NOTES  1. Types of Costs A. By Behavior Cost Type Description Example Fixed Cost Does not change with production level Rent, Salaries Variable Cost Changes in proportion to output Raw materials, Direct labor Semi-Variable Has both fixed and variable elements Utility bills, Phone bills B. By Traceability Cost Type Description Example Direct Cost Directly linked to a product Wood used in furniture Indirect Cost Cannot be directly traced to one product Factory rent, Admin costs 2. Costing Methods Method Description Use Case Absorption Costing Includes all costs (fixed + variable) into product cost External financial reporting Marginal Costing Includes only variable costs ; fixed = period cost Short-term decisions, break-even Activity-Based Costing (ABC) Allocates overheads based on actual activities Complex environments Standard Costing Uses pre-set "standard" costs for planning/variance P...

  🌋 Volcanoes – Geography Notes 📌 What is a Volcano? A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through which molten rock, ash, and gases escape. 🔥 Types of Volcanoes Active Volcano Erupts frequently (e.g., Mount Etna, Italy) Dormant Volcano Has not erupted in recent history but may erupt again (e.g., Mount Fuji, Japan) Extinct Volcano Has not erupted for thousands of years and is unlikely to erupt again (e.g., Arthur's Seat, Scotland) 🌋 Types of Volcanic Eruptions Effusive Eruption – Lava flows out gently (e.g., Hawaiian volcanoes) Explosive Eruption – Violent, with ash and gas clouds (e.g., Mount Vesuvius) 🗻 Types of Volcanoes by Shape Type Characteristics Example Shield Volcano Broad, gentle slopes, low-viscosity lava Mauna Loa, Hawaii Composite (Strato) Steep, explosive, layers of ash & lava Mount St. Helens, USA Cinder Cone Small, steep, made of volcanic debris Parícutin, Mexico Lava Dome Steep-sided dom...

  🌎 Climatic Regions of the World – Geography Notes 🔍 What is Climate? Climate refers to the average weather conditions in a region over a long period (typically 30 years or more). It includes elements like temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind, and atmospheric pressure. 📁 Classification of Climate The most widely used system is Köppen’s Climate Classification , developed by Wladimir Köppen. It is based on temperature and precipitation patterns and classifies the world into major climatic zones. 🗺️ Major Climatic Zones (Köppen Classification) 1. Tropical Climates (Group A) Location : 0° to 23.5° N and S (Tropics) Temperature : High year-round (above 18°C) Precipitation : Varies from very high to seasonal a. Tropical Rainforest (Af) Equatorial region (e.g., Amazon, Congo) Heavy rainfall throughout the year Evergreen forests b. Tropical Monsoon (Am) South and Southeast Asia Seasonal heavy rainfall due to monsoon winds Dense forests c. Tropical ...